ABSTRACT

“Democracy is the  government of the people, by the people , for the people”- Abraham Lincoln

Women have been fighting for their very basic rights since time immemorial .Initial feminist movements started with the demand for recognition of  right to vote and currently it is demanding for the equal representation of women in the political matters  . As they constitute 50% of the total population ,a democracy cant be healthy one  if  they don’t have any say  in the political affairs of the country not just as voters but, as a representatives as well .A lot of progress in done with respect to empowerment of women , but still a lot needs to be specially concerning their representation in  politics . Further for a democracy  to be truly successful it has to ensure participation and representation of all including the women from  marginalized communities . Rights of women under Islam has always been debatable , where on one hand is believed that Islam oppresses  women and on the other hand it is stated that Islam was one amongst few religions to recognize the rights of women at times when they were treated worst than objects . Muslim women in addition to the gender based discrimination face discrimination both in private spaces ( within the households ) as we as in public spaces (due to their religion),  thereby making them vulnerable than the other women .There has been reformation concerning Muslim women in politics in  some Muslim majority and Muslim minority countries wherein some of them have been able to hold the positions of power.India recently enacted a legislation concerning the reservation of women in politics  so as to ensure that women are part of political matters of a country not just as voters but as leaders as well , thereby stetting an example for “women led development”, which would help in achieving equitable , inclusive , sustainable and just society .

Key Words – Women ,Marginalization, Muslim Women  , Inter-sectional Feminism , Social Justice , Electoral Reform

1.INTRODUCTION

“I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved” –Dr.B.R.Ambedkar

 Effective political participation indicates a true democracy, as the greater the number of people who participate in democracy, the healthier the democracy will become.According to the data provided by Global Gender Gap Report , 2022 , India ranks 48^th  out of 146 with respect to the political empowerment of women.[1]At present 15% of total Lok Sabha members ( 2019-2024) are women and women constitute only 9% of the total members  present in the state legislative assemblies .[2] When addressing human rights , which are not gender specific implying that such rights are to be enjoyed by all . Even though biologically men and women are different but that doesn’t deprive women of basic fundamental rights . [3]The earliest feminist moments stressed on the universal adult franchise , advocating for the women’s right to vote , now we have moved forward since then and currently there is a need  to have a discourse on political representation of women .[4] The political representation of women is low, and even lower for Muslim women. However, their representation is crucial as it would enable them to advocate for their voices in mainstream politics.[5] Muslim women constitute 7% of the total population in India, but their political representation is only 0.7%.  Since independence, 5 out of 16 Lok Sabas did not have any Muslim women members.[6] Muslim women joining politics is not the norm as so far only a few of them have joined due to them being  part of the disadvantaged section of the society firstly as a women and secondly as a a member of minority community .[7]

1.2 Need for Reformation In Election

 At international level Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), 1979 to which India is signatory   lays emphasis  on  the eradication of gender- based discrimination in political and public spheres , which is also reflecting in the Sustainable Development Goals ( SDG’s) .[8]Therefore , there is a need to reform the election process, existing political parties, elected officials, and various government organizations must demonstrate empathy for the needs of these women belonging to marginalized communities.[9]Their contributions in political matters would help in shaping  an inclusive and sustainable society, further making it necessary  from the standpoint of women’s growth. [10]

1.3. Ensuring Social Justice  For Marginalized Communities

Political involvement is a fundamental way to address the socio-economic inequalities related to marginalization. [11]The word “Justice is derived from a Latin word “ Jungere” , which means “to bind or to tie together”, and  John Rawls famously describes it as “the first virtue of social institutions”.[12] While understanding that the main aim of justice is to regulate selfish actions of individuals, which can be achieved by ensuring equitable distribution, equality, and proportionate as well as fair rewards for everyone, thereby working towards harmony between personal interests and interests of society.[13]To further understand justice , one has to understand it takes various forms such as that of social justice , that aims at ensuring the equitable distribution of social benefits and rights in a just and fair manner[14], political justice , ensures equal political rights, to all without any discrimination and economic Justice  wherein the role of the government is to ensure that all citizens, particularly from marginalized groups, have financial security, thereby preventing economic discrimination and  ensuring the equitable distribution of social benefits and rights in a just and fair manner.[15]

2. UNDERSTANDING MARGINALIZATION AND IT’S KINDS

Marginalization pushes people to powerless positions and leads to their exclusion and struggle . People and the communities can be economically , socially and politically marginalized . In political sphere such people are deprived  from participate in voting and are deprived of  their access to their political representative .[16]

The existing social norms and regressive mindset has led to the  marginalization  and exploitation of women in India.Muslim women suffer discrimination and oppression in both private spaces ( within the households ) as well as in public spaces (due to the prevailing “communal political climate”), thereby enjoying low personal autonomy.[17] Muslim women are disadvantaged section of the society , firstly as a women and then as a member belonging to the  minority community . We have to understand that marginalization puts people in a position where they are powerless due to one or several dimensions of exclusion . [18]

2.1 Democracy and Marginalization

Effective participation in the political affairs indicates an existence of true democracy , more the number of participation of the people is an indication of healthier democracy .Political participation is crucial in addressing existing social and economic inequities which are associated with marginalization  and which would further help in supporting their voice in mainstream politics .[19]So far only 21 Muslim women have been elected to Lok Sabha Election in 2014 .Muslims are the 2^nd largest minority groups in India with the majority of which can be found in J&K and Lakshdweep .[20] Large portion of population are excluded from the politics based on gender  , religion , sexual orientation , ethnicity etc .The participation of women from these marginalized communities is even lower as compared to men . We have to understand that democracy will truly develop when all segments in the society are free to participate in the political process and influence it’s outcomes , without suffering any discrimination .[21]

3. UNDERSTANDING LOW REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN POLITICS

Through out  history women have been viewed as a second  class citizens and their potential has been limited by forcing them to carry out the domestic tasks .Women’s participation in politics is significantly less than men’s. They were and still are  discouraged to join politics  due to the “bystander effect”, wherein their character is assassinated , their abilities are questioned ,and further are perceived as threat to the existing social structures  and  are often viewed as incompetent and subject to male hostility and abuse .[22]Political representation in it’s true sense happens  when the political representatives speak on behalf of others in the policy making procedure .  [23]

3.1 Understanding Politics From A Gendered Lens

To invest in women indicates their empowerment  which can also be done by politically empowering them that would help in their sustainable growth and pay more attention  to women issues .The representation  of women in politics is a fundamental per-requisite for gender equality as they can directly engage in public decision making at the same time ensure better accountability to women, thereby sending  a powerful message of inclusion and prosperity . [24]So far political matters have been looked at from men’s perspective , by including women it can bring another perspective  while  addressing the issues effectively, thereby reaffirming the principles of democracy , equality and progress .Having more women in politics will help in advocating for cultural transformation laying emphasis on gender equality and offers a path to them wherein they can tackle the deep rooted challenges that have constrained their participation in the labour force participation in India preventing the economic growth and hampering gender equality in the country.[25]

3.2 Representation Of  Muslim Women  In Politics

Women who have chosen to enter politics in-spite of the existing religious and socio-economic barriers, are an exception to the general rule of “Muslim women not being in politic’s”.The role of Muslim women is invisible and have marginal social status in the Muslim societal dynamics which have led to hampering the development of Muslim women . [26]Often Muslim women are deprived of their political representation due to the religious barrier , but we must remind ourselves that Muslim women have effectively contributed in the society in the Islamic history and were not just confined within the four walls . Islam has often been accused for  political exclusion of women , but currently Islamist’s are advocating for increasing presence of women in the decision making , based on “principle of complementary and not principle of equality , as they believe that men and women are not equal but complement each other , as women have participated in public decision making since the time of Prophet Muhammad .[27]Many Islamist women state that extensive participation of Muslim women in the public life is the modern face of  Islam , an image which is contradictory  to what is portrayed by Western media portraying Muslim women as passive and powerless . [28]The history of marginalization of Muslim women has gradually led to their exclusion from public spaces. There are different ways in which Muslim women face discrimination and are doubly marginalized, i.e.  Unchecked bullying, suspicion of the nationalism of Muslims, preconceived notions against Muslims .[29]In these spaces, they face discrimination based on religion and further discrimination within their own community, which reduces their autonomy.[30]

3.2.a. .Political Representation of Muslim Women in Muslim Majority Countries

There  are many Muslim-majority  countries where women are still struggling to have equal political representation . As on 2022 , United Arab Emirates (UAE) so far has been able to achieve equal parity with respect to descriptive representation of women in its legislative body wherein women are making up to 50% of its Federal National Council ( being the 3rd highest country after Rwanda and Cuba with respect to female political representation and the  only  Muslim country so far in the top 10 list  ).[31]Muslims societies are often ranked lower in the Gender Gap Index Report . With the emergence of flexible Islamic interpretation has led to increasing Muslim Women participation in the political decision making specially in the Middle East and Norther Africa ( MENA) Muslim countries have made leaps of progress with respect to female political leadership .e.g Bangladesh , Indonesia  countries where women have held the highest political leadership positions , famously , Sheikh Hasina , Halima Yaacob , Najla Bouden and Benazir Bhutto are  the most familiar  Muslim female leaders in the Muslim nations .[32]

3.2.b.Participation of Muslim Women into Politics in Non- Muslim Countries

Concerning the representation of Muslim women in the Muslim minority countries such as that of Australia and the U.S , wherein Dr. Mehreen Faruqi , Dr. Anne Ally and Senator Fatima Payman( first hijab-wearing Muslim woman senator ) are occupying  the House of Representatives and the Senate respectively . With respect to USA in the 2022 elections 61% of the Muslim women candidates won the contested seats .[33]

3.2.c. Political Representation of Muslim Women in India

As per the statistics there are 7% Muslim women  in India and their political representation is 0.7%.Since independence 5 out of 16 Lok Sabhas didn’t have any Muslim women as members and only 15 Muslim women have entered Rajya Sabha as on 2010 .[34]There are existing obstacles that  dis-empowers them by limiting their ability to make decision for themselves let alone for their country.  Therefore , there  is an urgent need to ensure that Muslim women are represented in politics, as they can raise their voice, show empathy towards women suffering from injustice, and eventually take up their matters with the government which would  ensure diversity in policy-making arenas such as politics, bureaucracy, boardrooms, and multinational corporations.  Muslim women’s representation in parliament will ensure there is a greater say for the minority group wherein , they can address concerns of their community at various forums and are no more viewed  as second class citizens and ultimately lead to their integration with majority society . [35]

3.2.d.Representation of Kashmiri Women in Indian   Politics

Kashmir is the only Muslim majority state in India . In Kashmir women are apprehensive to join politics as it  still is a very conservative society and being in politics implies to be and deal with public and most of the  families are not comfortable with the same . Women in Kashmir have for the very first time participated in elections  only in 1972 when the 1^st assembly elections were held .  Out of 86.93 lakh registered voters in J&K 42.58 lakh voters are women . Considering the current times in the UT of J&K  women have a huge responsibility in deciding the political future of J&K wherein they would have to effectively contribute in the peace building which would help in effective political integration of J&K . [36]

4. SIGNIFICANCE OF POLITICAL REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN

Political representation would enable voices of women to be heard by the policymakers creating a space for themselves to actively contribute in building a harmonious and peaceful society.[37] It is important to include women in politics because women bring a different perspective in the political debates thereby creating a balance in political decision making .[38] Women are more skilled to help and represent the weak , the children and the disabled , and by women’s political participation , both “soft” and “hard” elements will be included in decision making .[39]

4.1 Analysis Of Women Reservation Act , 2023 

The passing of the current Law on reservation concerning women in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies[40] is progressive move by the Government of India which reserves 1/3^rd of  all seats for women in Lok Sabha (33%)as well as in State Legislative Assemblies after the publication of conducted census .Therefore, at time of the enforcement of this Act ,representation  of women from marginalized communities including  Muslim Women must be considered . [41]

4.2 Significance of   Reservation For  Women  in  Politics

Reservation of women in politics have has it’s own history ,as women face inter sectional discrimination which prevents their active participation in politics . In 1931 Official Memorandum which was jointly issued on the status of women by women leaders (Begum Shah Nawaz, Sarojini Naidu , the Committee Of The Status Of Women in India , 1971, followed by the National Perspective Plan for Women , 1988 all of which emphasized on the need for  providing reservation for women , from Panchayat to Parliament , which subsequently led to the passing of 73^rd and 74^th Amendments to the Constitution ( concerning reservation of women in local bodies in rural and urban areas) . [42]Further , National Policy For The Empowerment Of Women , 2001 & The Report On The Status Of Women in India , 2015 emphasized on the reservation of women in Parliament and State Assemblies . Even though many believe that reservation is against the very basic concept of equality , but with respect to politics ,such is needed initially for a certain period of time as political parties are inherently patriarchal, moreover , women are still underrepresented in Parliament .[43] Further the existing challenges in India concerning women,  need more women in  decision making as at presented only 14% members of Indian Parliament are women and this law will enable greater participation of women in  policy making decisions and would ensure equitable and inclusive governance .India by passing this law has set an example for political empowerment of women giving women  access to the various institutions of power within the Indian  Parliamentary Democracy , therefore a  progressive move by the Government of India ensuring women are part of the politics not just as the voters but as leaders as well .  [44]

5.CONCLUSION, SUGGESTIONS AND WAY FORWARD

It can therefore be concluded that when all people from various segments of the society are free to participate in politics and it’s outcomes without any discrimination , such would ensure that  democracy will lead to inclusive development and people are no more put to powerless positions .Further it has to be ensured that Political participation of women in all it’s forms addresses the existing socioeconomic inequalities associated with marginalization ,which supports their voices in the mainstream politics from the standpoint of women’s empowerment .To ensure social justice for women belonging to marginalized communities  initiatives have to be  undertaken at the grassroots levels as empowerment of Muslim women is part of the core of human rights values of human dignity and social justice, thereby constructive steps have to be taken so as to ensure the same while countering the existing stereotypes and prevailing discrimination and assumptions and which includes  correcting Islamophobic assumptions  that  is affecting the lives of Muslim women, thereby reconstructing an authentic stance of Islam on women’s empowerment that would enable Muslim women to influence decisions and practices that promote their rights,ensuring inclusive and diverse decision-making.

 5.1SUGGESTIONS

Therefore , to address the matter in hand effectively a multifaceted strategy is required wherein-

1. Collaboration between various stakeholders both and national as well as at international levels is necessary to represent the interests of marginalized communities.
2. Targeted support has to provided to marginalized communities through advocating for legal reforms which would help people from marginalized communities get elected to political offices.
3. People of India need to look beyond the stereotypical image of Muslim women being oppressed, rather more Muslim women have to be encouraged to take up leadership roles and contribute in decision making .
4. A holistic and multidimensional approach is required to understand the discrimination faced by women by addressing religious, social, and legal aspects of gender discrimination.
5. Political representatives, need to listen to these historically silenced groups , as learning about the history of human rights abuses and oppression creates more empathy towards them , which would lead to reformation .
6. There is a need to learn and create awareness about marginalization and it’s impact and further invest in infrastructure and public services for people belonging to such marginalized communities .

5.2WAY FORWARD

India envisions of becoming a developed country by 2027 and for it to do so , it has to ensure rights of all it’s citizens are protected ,further steps must be taken concerning  empowerment of  women from marginalized communities, including Muslim women,  enabling them to enjoy the same legal rights as women of other communities in India.Further there is a need to construct  culturally appropriate model for Muslim women which would ensure their empowerment in leadership roles in alignment with the United Nations SD G’s , wherein Muslim women will be taking ownership of their struggles to fight for equality by attaining leadership positions  making India to be amongst  the first few countries  to set an example for the “Women initiated and led development”.  Ensuring political representation of Muslim women is important as they are often portrayed as one lacking agency to take their own decisions , such image can only be done away with  when the voices of Muslim women is increased in the decision making process . Further it has to be ensured that the decisions making power of women must not just be confined soft areas such as that of women’s issues , welfare and well being of children’s only .Further in order to be successful ,the primary indicator for success under the UN millennium goal and further goal 5 of SDG is to “promote gender equality and empower women” , such can only be done by ensuring the proportion of seats held by women in the national parliament.

[1] India Climbs eight places to 127 in global gender index, WEF Report , The Economic Times , 2023

[2] PRS Legislative Research , In Charts: What Women’s Represenataion in India’s Parliament , Assemblies Looks Like Now , 2023

[3] Md Sahnewaz Sanu , Empowerment Of Muslim Women In India : A Study Of Socio-Economic and Political Disparities , Aligarh Muslim University , 2018

[4] MF Ahmad & MS Sanu , Inclusibe Growth in India : Current Scnario and Future Prospective , Interdisciplinary Research Journal , 4 , pp86-98 , 2016 

[5] Mushrith & Niyaz Panakaje , Effectiveness Of Government Schemes in Trasnforming Religious Minorities : A Review , International Journal Of Case Studies in Business IT and Education , 2023

[6] Qazi Sarah Rasheed , Transcending Binaries through self -empowerment and personal development , Exploring the Role Of Muslim Women Activists in Community Reforms , 2023

[7] Md Sahnewaz Sanu , Empowerment Of Muslim Women in India : A Study Of Socio-Economic and Political Disparities , Depart. Of Economics , Aligarh Muslim University , 2020

[8] CEDAW General Recommendation No.23: Political and Public Life ,refworld , Global Law & Policy Database , UNHCR

[9] Nabil Yasien Mohamed , Navigating between Patriarchal Fubdamentalism and Islamic Feminism : A Critical Islamic Appraisal

[10] Deborah Tolu- Kolawole , Women’s inclusion in politic important for sustainable development-EU ,PUNCH , 2024

[11] Nanuli Silagadze&ors , Perceptions of Inequality and Political Partcipation : The Moderating Role of Ideology , Political Studies Review , 21 , 28^th March , 2022

[12] Justice ,(2021) Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 

[13] Justice:Meaning and It’s Importance , Journal For Legal Research and Juridical Sciences , Blogs .

[14] Daniel Thomas Mollenkamp ,(2024)Social Justice Meaning and Main Principles Explained ,Investopedia .

[15] Terry Macdonald , Political justice in a complex global order:rethinking pluralist legitimacy , International Affairs , 99 , 61-79 , 2023

[16] Master Class , What is Marginalization ? Types , Causes , Effects ,Community and Government , Articles, 17^th September , 2022

[17] Newsclick Report , Study Shows Double Discrimination Faced by Muslims and SC’s in Cities , Newsclick , 28^th Hune 2023

[18] Almas Shaikh & Anjali Rawat , Unveiling the need for an Intersectional Approach , Oxford Human Rights Hub , A Global Perspective on Human Rights , 1^st March , 2023

[19] Partcipation of Vibrant Civil Society , Marginalized Communities Crucial for Achieving Global Goals , Speaks Tell High -Level Political Forum , ECOSOC/7138 , 14^th July 2023

[20] Waseem Ahmad , Where are the Muslim women in Indian Politics?, Kautiliya School Of Public Policy , 2021-23

[21] Sashikant Pandey & Siddhartha Mukerji , Indian Democracy : Inclusive In Theory Exclusionary In Practice , The Indian Journal Of Political Science , 74 , pp.557-570, 2013

[22] Kirk Desoto , The Political  Bystander Effect : Evidence For Further Investigation , Applied PsychologyOPus

[23] Lisa Jane Disch , The Power Of Political Representataion , Contemporary Political Theory ,16^th Dec 2023

[24] Sohela Nazneen & Simeen Mahmud , The Gendered Politics Of Securing Inclusive Development , 197-230 , Oxford Academic ,2014

[25] Wendy Harcourt , What does a gender lens bring to development studies ? 2019

[26] Aadil Ahmed Shairgojri and Rashid Manzoor Bhat , Muslim Women And Politics Of India , Morfai Journal , 2 , 760-766 , 2023

[27] The Prophetic Vision Of Women Empowerment : Evidence from Prophet Muhammad’s (pbuh) Family

[28] Noor Md. Osmani & Md. Omar Farooq , Women Empowerment and Leadership  in Islam between Myth and Reality

[29] Patricia Jeffery& Kaveri Qureshi ,(2022) Muslim Women /Muslim women :lived experiences beyond reigion and gender in South Asia and its diasporas , Contemporary South Asia , 30 ,pp-1-15 .

[30] Mihiri Wijetunge , (2023)Muslim Women in India , A Double Burden ? Gender In Geopolitics Institute .

[31] Gender EqualitY and Women’s Empowerment , Permanent Committee For Human Rights , UAE

[32] Fatima Mernissi , The Veil and the Male Elite : A Feminist Interpretataion Of Women’s Rights in Islam , Reading  Mass ,1991

[33] Jasmine Mithani Why the 2022 election was historic for Muslim Womeen’s Representataion , Election 2022 , The 19^th , 2022

[34] Women’s Bill: There are 7% Muslim Women in Indian Population and their represenatation is 0.7% , says , The Economic Times ,20^th September , 2023

[35] Abby M. Rolland , Muslim Women Political Leaders and Electoral Partcipation in Muslim -Majority Countries , The Cupola , Scholarship at Gettusburg College

[36] Ashwaq Masoodi , Kudos to Mehbooba Mufti , but where are Kashmiri’s female politicians ? , Mint , 4^th April , 2016

[37]  Rabiah Aminudin , The Evolution Of Muslim Women’s Political Particpation , Isami City , 2023

[38] Asma Turabi , Interview , 2012

[39] Ibid

[40] Women Reservation Act , 2023 ( The Nari Shakti Vandan Adinyam)

[41] Women’s Rservation Bill 2023 : Need, Features , Challenges and Way Forward , Next IAS , 26^th October , 2023

[42] Ajay Mohanty , The long journey of the Women’s Rservation Bill in India Explained , Business Standard , 19^th Sep, 2023

[43] Women’s Reservation Bill: History of female representataion in Parliament over the years , 19^th Sep , 2023

[44] Prem Chowdhry , Women’s reservation will strengthen democracy , The Tribune 2023